Hume would of thought that?

David Hume was an empirical philosopher who had a strong belief that the world exists though 'synthesised' mental phenomena.  For this very reason, Hume opposed the views of Decartes, an Idealist philosopher.
Hume was thought to be an Atheist, though through fear of death, this is something he never openly admitted.

Hume links to Journalism in a really important way and the main argument that is a crucial point to learn is that as journalists we must never jump to conclusions. This idea is derived from Hume's theory of causation. He believed that causation did not appear in nature and is actually a mental illusion that humans perceive to be real.
He offered an example to illustrate this...

The sun does neither rise nor set, this is a mental illusion. What is actually happening, is the Earth is orbiting the Sun making it appear to humans that the Sun is moving across the sky as the goes on.

He also provided a very famous example to explain how we can never really be completely sure that causation exists, he explained this through Billiard Balls. Hume explained how we would see a white ball hit into the red ball and would then automatically assume that the red ball's movement was a result of the impact from the white ball. Hume argued we cannot be sure that the impact was a result of the red ball's movement and suggested that an extraneous force could have been responsible and that the timing for this event coincided with the impact of the white ball perfectly. In my opinion, this argument by Hume is one that is very difficult to challenge as he is correct in saying that we cannot ever be 100% sure when we make this assumptions.

Hume was against synthetic logic and Induction. This is the idea that from past events and regular patterns that appear in our life we can make informed guesses about what might happen in the future. For example,  the sun rose today and yesterday so this must mean the sun will rise tomorrow. This is something Hume felt was inaccurate and he believed that past events such as the sun rising offered no accurate reason why the sun should rise tomorrow.

Hume took the work of John Locke and developed his ideas further, this is why Hume's work bears a lot of ideas that were mentioned by Locke in particular how knowledge is gained through experience and sensation. Hume developed this by suggesting that impressions are objects in our life or experiences that we have seen or have made us feel a particular way, these are then used at a later point to form an idea often when we are reminded of the impression or we reflect upon it. He also believed that many of our ideas come from our senses and he believed that causation acted almost like a seventh sense. From the reading, Bertrand Russell uses 'taste' to try and explain this. He said that when we look at an apple, we will naturally expect it to taste a particular way. This has happened through association. Hume suggests that there is no logical reason for us to assume that the apple will taste a particular way, just because it has every time we have eaten an apple in the past. He claimed that there is no reason why the next time we bite into an apple it will not taste of roast beef. Through association and habit, we assume there will be a connection but of course, according to Hume there might not be.

According to the views of Hume, things are only happening in the universe because humans perceive them to be. This is something I agree with, if I take colours for example, there is no real way of knowing we all as humans see exactly the same colours or if for instance I said 'emerald green', you would understand 'emerald green' to be the exact same colour as me. Colours are simply what we interpret them to be.
Hume did however mention that for more complex ideas, impressions are not always necessary as our brains have the power to synthesise. This meaning, that we are clearly able to imagine and winged horse because we have the impression of wings already along with a horse and we can put these together:

Wings + Horse = Winged Horse.

This idea then led him to question whether impressions were necessary at all. He used an example of a thirty year old man with perfect eyesight, he explained how the man had seen every shade of blue expect for one whilst he had been growing up. The man is then presented with a spectrum of all the shades of blue ranging from the lightest to the darkest, however, there is a gap where the shade he has not seen belongs. Hume questions whether it would be possible for the man to imagine what this shade of blue will look like using the impressions of all the other shades he has seen. In this occasion, I do agree that impressions are perhaps not always needed to imagine such objects, however some impressions are otherwise we would not have the ability to synthesise.

Most empiricists would agree with Hume by saying that causation cannot be accurately proved to exist, however there are some instances that would leave the the prospect of doubting causation absurd. For example, the way pain is usually followed by a cry. Although not impossible, that an extraneous force could have caused the cry, it seems unlikely.

I think I have learnt lots of knowledge from Hume and it certainly has made me ponder over the conclusions I make on an everyday basis. Perhaps, I will have to limit it somewhat though, after all, the idea of dismissing causation completely is enough to drive anyone crazy.

Media Law - Copyright & Investigative Journalism

Copyright has existed for over 200 years and the 1911 Copyright Act prevents another individual directly copying already published work and claiming that it is their own. This is a Civil Law and one that is important for Journalists to not only follow themselves but in many ways is a law they should also be grateful of.
However, there is a catch. Although, produced or published work cannot be directly copied; ideas can never be copyrighted meaning that so long as the idea is not made into formal work, absolutely anyone can use your idea(s) and make it their own. As annoying this may seem, it can work as an advantage for Journalists as inspiration for news and information can be gained from others.
Any information found on the internet, in published books or in other form of published work must not be copied directly as this is a breach of the 1911 Copyright Act.
There are some occasions when 'Fair Dealing' is permitted. This essentially involves you identically copying someone's work, e.g song lyrics etc but for the purpose to review. When adding comments or producing a review for someone, this is the only instance when you are allowed to copy another individual's work exactly.

Investigative Journalism was the topic that was discussed in today's Media Law lecture and one I found of interest. The definition for 'Journalism' is essentially a business in which we as Journalists sell information to the general public. Investigative Journalism differs as the Journalists find the information to report themselves. 'Subtifuge' is a key concept in Investigative Journalism and refers to the 'camera in a bag job'. This is a technique that can be used by Journalists to gain information without the individual it is involving being aware that they are under observation. There are however, three main rules that Journalists must obey in order for Subtifuge to go ahead. 1. The story must be completely free from malice, 2. the Journalist must have permission from OFCOM or the BBC and 3. It must be the only way that the necessary information could be obtained.
'Trawling' is not permitted. This would involve the act of having a hidden camera or tape recorder in a public place without a specific reason in hope of randomly finding a news story.
When Subtifuge is performed accurately, it can be very successful as proved in past cases.
'The Secret Policeman' was aired on Channel 4 as a documentary and showed Mark Daly, a Journalist for the BBC working undercover as a policeman in Manchester to investigate whether there were corrupt officers in the force.  Below is the link to watch the documentary shown on Google Videos.

http://video.google.co.uk/videoplay?docid=-5551329695583587541#

His work resulted in several policeman being removed from the force and proved a triumph for Journalists.

'The Evidence Gap'was an issue that was also discussed at the lecture. There are two types, the first occurs within a criminal case in which in order to convict an individual the jury must unanimously believe they are guilty 'beyond any reasonable doubt'. This of course cannot be proved exactly, there will always be an element in doubt within any court case. This links back to HCJ and philosopher, Decartes. 'I think therefore I am.'
Decartes is famous for his Cartesian Doubt theory in which it is possible to doubt everything you think you know, except your own mind. This means that it is not really possible to ever convict an individual 'beyond reasonable doubt'. The second type of  'Evidence Gap' is found within Civil Law cases in which there is a lack of evidence and instead a reliance on probability/likelihood. For example, if a Journalist is involved within a libel case so long as they have caused the person within the story to be potentially shunned or avoided, or potentially at risk to losing their job, this is enough evidence for the Journalist to lose in that particular case.

I found this lecture very interesting and made me aware of the different techniques that can be used within Journalism. As ever, I am looking keen to learn more.
For now, watch this space.

My First Seminar Paper

Below is the work I produced for my first seminar paper, some of it is written in note form but that was mainly to prompt me with further ideas. I felt like I enjoyed reading Addison, and I can't speak for anyone else but I also felt it offered a nice change - the reading was written in fairly modern language meaning it could be understood in less time. Enjoy - 

Joseph Addison – The Spectator

In the opening lines of The Spectator, Addison states that among his writings he adopts two styles. Some are of ‘Regularity and Method’; this I infer as being empirical/ factual or in other words something that another individual could understand and comprehend with ease whilst the other style is ‘Essay’ based and has a much more Idealist approach. He explains that in the first style, this format has structure and more often than not Addison knows exactly what his thought process is before he writes this down. On contrary to the latter, ‘Essay’ format is more fluid and has less structure; it can often lead to opinions and gaining answers through a figuration process. (Something that another individual may disagree with or struggle to understand.)

He offers examples of philosophers who follow both styles of writing: Seneca and Montagine follow ‘Essay’ whilst Aristotle and Tully support Method.

Appears to be in favour of ‘Method’. ‘Method is of advantage to a work, both to the writer and the reader.’ He explains that if a piece of writing/work is carefully planned and thought out, it will raise questions (notably more intelligible questions!) that may not be necessarily linked to the subject but offer interpretation and meaning, perhaps gaining a better insight than writing which lacks order and connection. This makes sense, for example if you were to prepare some work on an area that you were unfamiliar with and did not produce any research, somebody who had done research; they would hold a more accurate and detailed account.

He explains that the reader gains advantages from reading methodical data – it is easy for him to read and he will retain it for a long time.

“He comprehends everything easily, takes it in with pleasure and retains it long.”

He further explains that ‘Method’ is not necessarily needed in everyday conversation so long as other individuals can interpret the meaning you are trying to create. He states that there is ‘ not one Dispute in ten that is managed in those Schools of Politics, where, after the first three sentences, the question is not lost.”

He explains that a man who cannot methodise his thoughts is basically invisible and his thoughts and ideas become lost.

Refers to Tom Puzzle, he claims Puzzle is one of the most immethodical philosophers he has come across. Addison explains that his ‘sufficient’ knowledge but is pitied by the idea that he has not been involved in more education. “It is a pity he has had so much Learning, or that he has not had a great deal more.”  I interpret as though Addison is suggesting that had he had more education or gained further qualifications, Puzzle may be more coherent. Addison claims that Puzzle is an Atheist and judging my Addisons remarks, this is something that I feel he disapproves of. ‘…finds a great many things to blame in the Constitution of his Country, and gives shrewd imitations that he does not believe in another world.”

It seems that Tom Puzzle is a man admired by those who are beneath him in status; however, he is not favoured by those gifted with more intelligence. Mentions Will Dry towards the conclusion; this is a man that is very logically minded and tries to ‘help’ Puzzle be more logical with his work/writings.

The Royal Exchange –

First paragraph or so suggests his love and admiration for The Royal Exchange. Explains the basic point behind trading with foreign countries and in one sentence compares them to that of the politic world: ‘Factors in the trading world are what ambassadors are in the politic world; they negotiate affairs and conclude affairs etc’. Suggests how he likes the trading business and in a rather humorous way explains how it almost seems like he can switch nationalities due to the sheer number of ministers from different walks of life that he engages with. Claims that a happy and wealthy country makes him happy – so much so that his level of joy causes him to shed tears. This, to Addison, provides evidence why he favours the Royal Exchange (it means that the country is provided with items necessary i.e through foreign trading and in turn creating wealth.)

Addison goes on to suggest that as a nation we rely on foreign trading and often sources from different regions/countries compliment each other whilst creating what it is we need. He provides example of this ‘The food is often grown in one country and the sauce in another. The fruits of Portugal are corrected by the produce of Barbados.’  

I found the range of exaggerated examples amusing –

‘The single dress of a woman of quality is a product of a hundred climates’

‘ The petticoat rises out of the mines of Peru, whilst the diamond necklace comes out of the bowels of Indostan.’

Claims that if our country did not have foreign exchange, it would be an unhappy, somewhat miserable place and would not be as wealthy. A lot of what we consider to be ‘ours’ has actually been imported from other countries in the past and has ‘been polished in our English Gardens’.

‘Nature furnishes us with the bare necessities of life but traffic gives us a great variety and at the same time supplies us with everything that is convenient and ornamental.’ From what I can infer from this quote, Addison is suggesting that although our country supplies with good produce, items that we need, we gain BETTER sources and supplies from other countries and by using trafficking we can gain produce and materials that compliment each other meaning that we are as successfully and prosperous as we can be.

Again, Addison provides a humorous statement by saying that another advantage of trafficking is that we can gain the fruits and produce from other countries but we do not have to endure the weather/climate in order to grow such items. Bizarre?

Trafficking as a whole ‘knits’ mankind together, it also allows us to form (what Addison describes as) an ‘empire’. Not only can we gain foreign produce but we can meet other people and their land meaning that the value of our country is ultimately increased. 

Peter Cole's Take on Newspapers.

Having read the articles produced by Peter Cole, I found his views and his writing style easy to follow and interesting. However, he does refer to Broadsheet newspapers as 'serious' newspapers suggesting that Tabloid newspapers are not. I feel that the two formats simply have different ways of writing, they supply different types of content and as a result are writing for different audiences, but this is something that does not make them any less serious than The Times or The Independent, for example. Broadsheets tend to be more neutral and do not contain celebrity news, but they are also newspapers read by those exceeding the age of 35, in that way, it would be not suitable and best left to the Tabloids.

Recently, there has been a panic within society about the decline in newspapers and the controversial predictions on whether the production of newspapers will come to an end, with the internet being their replacement. Cole touches on this and freely admits that there has been a fall in newspaper sales, however, he does insist that this is a gradual process (much to my relief, as I like having a newspaper to read whilst eating my lunch!) He stated that   around 11.7 million newspapers are during the week whilst 12.5 million are sold on Sundays. This I found interesting, but does make sense as Sunday is the day that most people have off from work and are more likely to have time to sit down and engage with the world's news on that particular day. Aside of this, Sunday is the day that all the freebie supplements arrive, for example 'Fabulous' magazine found inside the News of the World.
Cole mentions how many people have one paper they love to read, maybe it's one that they have been brought up to have on their coffee table, one that their parents love or one that they simply enjoy but the point being that most people rarely read two papers on the same day without a reason for doing so. This, from my experiences seems to be true. For example, my grandparents for as long as I can remember have always without fail bought The Sun each day. This may seem odd as it is usually full of the latest celebrity gossip, but it is hard to deny that most people do not enjoy reading gossip and to many people this is sometimes enjoyable. (After all, what with The Sun being the best selling newspapers, they must be doing some thing right for British consumers!) My parents however, read The Guardian or The Times but never usually anything else. This, I think goes to show that Peter Cole could be right about that.

Cole explains with regards to Sunday newspapers, that these are embedded into our culture and is something that will always remain even if the nature of our Sunday is dramatically changed. This may be true as linked to what I said earlier, Sunday is the one day a week which most people are likely to be free from work and have more time to read making this an enjoyable time when they do engage with their favourite Sunday newspaper.
He also suggests that Saturday papers are imitations of the successful Sunday newspapers, as they too provide small supplements on various different topics of interest including property, finance, G2 (found in the Guardian), technology etc and Cole suggests that this offers some good reading for the weekend. I feel this is true, and I like the style that many broadsheet newspapers adopt where each section is covered in a 'miniature' version making easy reading. I'm learning to appreciate all the national newspapers for what they do and their viewpoints. I have to say I like reading The Guardian and all the mini pull outs that cover the latest Apple 'Apps', I like reading the 'Fe-Mail' section of The Daily Mail and I think everyone has a soft spot for The Sun now and again. Cole has helped me understand about newspapers and media as a business and how successful they really are. I feel I have a better knowledge now on the background of many of the newspapers mentioned in his articles and overall found it very interesting. 

A Visit To Winchester Law Courts...

I have to say that I really underestimated how amazing observing a court case would really be. I have never been inside a court room before and as far as the room goes, it was exactly what I was expecting. The judge, individuals in the press box scribbling furiously, the jury and of course the individuals accused were give or take a few features, what I was expecting to see.  However what I did not expect, was the feeling I felt when listening to the shocking details of a murder trial.

It almost seemed surreal sitting in the presence of people who were accused of such a crime and actually being able to hear first hand of the questions being asked and the individuals responses to these. It dawned on me how difficult it must be to be asked to become a member of the jury service, and as I looked around the room I could see how so many of them were writing very fast trying to capture every detail. I also realised how (for want of a better word) 'normal' these people were. They were all dressed in normal clothes, drinking water and listening intensively, I suddenly considered that perhaps one day that could be me.

On television, you often see clips from court trials, perhaps in soap operas and various other shows of a similar nature and what I found interesting was observing whether the people involved in the court case behaved and spoke how they often get portrayed. To some extent they do, the clear cut voices of the prosecutor and how they wear curly, white wigs and it has to be said on some occasions they can seem intimidating. However, the judge spoke (although clearly) very calmly and at times often asked the individual within the box if they felt okay to continue. This is something that perhaps television neglects to show. When I first entered the public gallery, I felt unsure where to look but as the case went on, I relaxed slightly and really began to appreciate how fascinating it really is. It may sound slightly odd but I would love to go again and watch a case for the whole duration as I think the experience I had was one I will not forget for some time.

The BBC - A Case Study, Past and Present.

'BBC News' currently stands as the world's largest broadcasting organisation and produces approximately 120 hours of radio, on-line and televised news coverage a day. The BBC employs around 3,500 members of staff; more than half of which are Journalists. Much of the news produced by the BBC is broadcast from the Television Centre.

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BBC Television Centre where all news is broadcast (above)

Prior to this, the BBC rented out Alexander Palace, London. The British Broadcasting Company first came to life in November 1922 when it produced its first ever radio bulletin, at which point it had four staff members. Radio proved to be a big hit and people often met up regularly to listen to news and sporting events. The commissioning of music and drama meant that popularity for the BBC continued to increase.

BBC News then went on to produce a television service, first aired in 1936.
With more and more people purchasing television sets, it gave the BBC an opportunity to supply people with news and current affairs in a way that they had never managed before.  Despite this proving very popular, in 1939, the BBC suffered problems due to the outbreak of the war. They found themselves under a huge amount of pressure and the Broadcasting House was thought to be a potential target for German bombers. This scary prediction was proved correct in October of the following year. Newsreader, Bill Belfrage was on air in the nine o'clock slot when the bomb hit the building. Due to great professionalism, he continued but was not allowed to react due to strict security reasons. Seven people were killed in the devastation. 

The shocking destruction German bomb left to The Broadcasting House in 1940 (above)

Morale at this time was inevitably low, however the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 meant sales in television sets increased and gave the BBC an opportunity to fight back against the unfortunate events they had encountered. Broadcasting increased rapidly in five years, from thirty hours a week in 1950 through to 50 by 1955. However, for the first time the BBC had competition and what with such a major event due to be broadcast, this made the competition even more daunting. ITV emerged in 1953 and many of the staff working for the BBC swapped to join the newcomer, ITV. This proved difficult for the BBC to overcome. 

However, a change was in sight when the BBC moved to 'The Television Centre' where they remain to this day. This move took place in 1960 and saw the creation of new programmes such as 'The Week That Was', which again boosted the BBC's popularity meaning they were slowly winning the battle against competition. In 1964, the BBC expanded to create BBC Two with the idea that this would work along side BBC One. This was another success for the BBC. However, whilst reporting events such as the Falklands War and the 1984 'Miners Strike', the BBC were heavily criticised for being biased in their reports.

In the late 1990's under the rule of John Birt, the BBC was given a complete re-vamp and many alterations were made. Internet facilities were also launched meaning this offered an alternative method to broadcast news.

Greg Dyke now leads the BBC and has released more channels for children as well as news channels and radio stations for adults, offering daily up-to-date news.

John Locke - An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

John Locke (above)

John Locke was a philosopher who was very much in favour of empiricism and this is clearly demonstrated in his work, his most famous being 'The Essay of Human Understanding.' Locke opposed many of his predecessor Idealist philosophers, in particular Decartes. 

Locke believed that from birth we are completely void of all knowledge and our brains are similar to a blank, white canvas. We have no personality and as we grow older we learn more about the environment we are surrounded by and gradually knowledge begins to make imprints on our minds. He asks himself that if this is the case and we are all born without any innate knowledge, how does this develop? His answer is a simple idea and one which I struggle to challenge. He claimed that knowledge is learnt entirely from experience. This is then broken down into sensation and reflection.  

Sensation, he believes is a method we use to understand external objects and beings or 'sensible objects'. For example, we can familiarise with the texture of the object using our touch sense or the smell of a food we like using our smell. All five senses allow us to gain further knowledge about the external objects we share our environment with. 

Reflection, is slightly different and this refers to how we can understand internal processes and concepts which we are unable to rely on our senses to understand. An example of how reflection may be used is 'love'. This is something that we are unable to see or touch, but we understand this through past experiences which we then later reflect on and recognise this as being love.  Locke claims that there is nothing within our minds that has not derived from either sensation or reflection. He poses a difficult question to the reader, asking them to challenge this and I cannot honestly think of anything that has not come from either of these two concepts. 

Throughout the essay, Locke refers to children frequently to emphasise his points. He explains how whilst a child is developing through the first few years of their life, they will experience a wave of different objects and emotions, all of which probably will not register with them and will probably cause confusion. It will be at a later point in their life when a similar situation occurs that they will then reflect on past events and gain knowledge. An example, Locke presents is the idea that if a child were to be kept in a totally black room until they were a fully grown adult they would have no idea about other colours, only those which they had been presented with as a child. This supports his theory of sensation feeding us with knowledge.

I also have an example which supports Locke's theory...

During my English Language A Level Course, we came across an interesting story of a small child called Genie, who was locked away in a small room in her home town of Temple City, California.  She was strapped to a potty chair and was deprived of all human communication. When she was discovered in 1970, Genie had no or very little language. This is because as children we learn language from hearing sounds from others around us, and as Genie was denied this she had only developed the normal sounds you would hear from 'babbling' babies. This also supports Locke's theory as it suggests that humans learn knowledge from their senses (in this case hearing) from objects and other beings surrounding them.

Locke then takes his ideas slightly deeper in the latter part of his essay, he discusses the soul and dreaming. He explains how when one dreams, they can also experience pleasure and pain despite the events taking place not being 'real'. He explains that the soul is constantly thinking and believes that as sleep takes us into an almost unconscious state, the soul has the ability to split and even inhabit another body. During my seminar, it was suggested that this may mean his empiricist work is questionable, I  however believe he is showing empiricism throughout as he states that he finds his claims difficult to prove in some areas as he lacks evidence. Idealist philosophers such as Decartes would never suggest this and believe that by using a process of 'figuring things out'  they can understand the world. Locke draws his essay to conclude that thought processes begin when an individual engages within their first 'sensation', this then goes hand in hand with 'reflection'. 

I enjoyed Locke's reading and this week I felt more relaxed in the seminar. 

For now, watch this space.